A programme of large-scale experiments for atmospheric dispersion was carried out by INERIS over a period extending from December 1996 to April 1997. Bouet et al, HAL Open Science, 2014.

Wind and solar will provide much of the UK’s future electricity. But to match their volatile supply with demand, which is variable, it’s necessary to store renewable electricity when there is an excess.

IRENA’s global renewable power generation costs study shows that the competitiveness of renewables continued to improve despite rising materials and equipment costs in 2022.

Cross-border trading of hydrogen will increase in the 2030s, at pace with the cost-competitiveness of green hydrogen. IRENA envisages that two-thirds of green hydrogen production in 2050 would be used locally, and one-third traded across borders. Ammonia is the most promising vector for hydrogen transport via ship. Half of 410mn t of hydrogen is expected to be moved as ammonia by 2050.

MILP model to optimise the production cost of green ammonia in Australia. Costs are economically justified based on buying and selling electricity from the grid. A grid connection can reduce the minimum Levelised Cost of Ammonia (LCOA) by almost 11%.

Key messages include:

• The sector’s decarbonisation strategy must involve a combination of energy efficiency and renewable fuels.

• Renewable e-ammonia will play a pivotal role; where 183 million tonnes of renewable ammonia for international shipping alone will be needed by 2050 - a comparable amount to today’s ammonia global production.

• In the next decades renewable fuels will become cost competitive

Towards more sustainable nitrogen fertiliser production. Scenario analysis to explore three possible futures for ammonia production. The Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario describes a trajectory for the ammonia industry that is compatible with reaching net zero emissions globally for the energy system by 2050.

The role of hydrogen in meeting net zero and UK ambitions for a thriving hydrogen economy by 2030.

Models global energy flows with optimised location of ammonia terminals

Compares global shipping options, including from Australia, Chile and Oman. Ammonia is the least cost option in all cases, reaching €55-75/MWh by 2050.

Identifies key strategies to reduce investment costs for electrolysis plants by 80% in the long term.

A concise summary of Ammonia properties, decarbonisation of ammonia production, applications and opportunities.

Recommendations to scale up hydrogen, considering green ammonia generation in Australia and Africa (p.82), production costs (p.60) and global potential.

Sets out technical and commercial opportunities for Australia to generate, store and export green ammonia.